THE ORIGINS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY: JOHN BOWLBY AND MARY AINSWORTH
作者: INGE BRETHERTON / 35908次阅读 时间: 2011年4月24日
来源: Developmental Psychology (1992), 28, 759-775.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY AND MENTAL REPRESENTATION 心理学空间lL{i&pi

r8cCk2}x8P Q A0Separation (Bowlby, 1973) and Loss (Bowlby, 1980a), the second and third volumes in 心理学空间,nQ(L'MqQ
Bowlby’s attachment trilogy, were slower to make an impact on the field of developmental 心理学空间 O*b+F(q @ LK
psychology than the first volume, in part because relevant empirical studies lagged behind. Like 心理学空间2Q'I8IW3^9s%SY
Attachment, these two volumes cover much more theoretical ground that their titles imply. 心理学空间4i4hK&b&uU*|6hg*I
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Separation
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#pgN-XxxN})tDf2K:I0In this book, Bowlby (1973) revises Freud’s (1926/1959) theory of signal anxiety, lays out
6V,p&bC/g#Yj:i] M0a new approach to Freud’s (1923/1961, 1940/1964) motivational theories, and presents an 心理学空间1aH`em\-{0tiN"f
epigenetic model of personality development inspired by Waddington’s (1957) theory of developmental 心理学空间].Qg7b b:N w0L5^]
pathways.
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8G]D1w8R#D]_u t{p0Elaborating on his seminal 1959 paper, Bowlby notes that two distinct sets of stimuli elicit 心理学空间.s%{c4t4O&_b/iv7D
fear in children: the presence of unlearned and later of culturally acquired clues to danger and/or 心理学空间^s]&@F~U
the absence of an attachment figure. Although escape from danger and escape to an attachment
1i6f,qo5c,U0figure commonly occur together, the two classes of behavior are governed by separate control 心理学空间_VF CA2q7{,i
systems (observable when a ferocious dog comes between a mother and her young child.
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Although Bowlby regarded the systems controlling escape and attachment as conceptually
%}'VB H5kb0distinct, he considers both as members of a larger family of stress-reducing and safety-promoting
JgO?p;ET0behavioral systems, whose more general function is that of maintaining an organism within a
.gFVf;m7A R0defined relationship to his or her environment. Rather than striving for stimulus absence, as Freud 心理学空间 bCQC-k_'b8e
had suggested, Bowlby posits that humans are motivated to maintain a dynamic balance between 心理学空间+^ `,p,G]Hb5T

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@:D t%gk"E0J6W/T0familiarity-preserving, stress-reducing behaviors (attachment to protective individuals and to
.M Vpk'n1~9i$v h0familiar home sites, retreat from the strange and novel) and antithetical exploratory and 心理学空间#cM.B5A(Je
information-seeking behaviors.
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9@/mB NI[$rM hZ*u0After revising Freud’s theories of fear and motivation, Bowlby reexamined Freud’s concept
y ulcNv B0of the “inner world” in light of modern cognitive theory. In Separation, he expands ideas 心理学空间(DHCZT
proposed in Attachment by suggesting that, within an individual’s internal working model of the 心理学空间?!`){0NU4a
world, working models of self and attachment figure are especially salient. These working 心理学空间I.H)n j8NP;E
models, acquired through interpersonal interaction patterns, are complementary. If the attachment
.G!kK.rf&f#nv t0figure has acknowledged the infant’s needs fur comfort and protection while simultaneously 心理学空间 _gNn*b+f;^
respecting the infant’s need for independent exploration of the environment, the child is likely to
yd+m}Bh6jMG cQ0develop an internal working model of self as valued and reliable. Conversely, if the parent has
n?6y6t&v_ u0frequently rejected the infant’s bids for comfort or for exploration, the child is likely to construct 心理学空间6m#b3r!un ~
an internal working model of self as unworthy or incompetent. With the aid of working models,
&pE'Rp2gp-Y0children predict the attachment figure’s likely behavior and plan their own responses. What type
$a%^v xcI%_'FT0of model they construct is therefore of great consequence. 心理学空间 f.Or!}yed4t
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In Separation, Bowlby also elucidates the role of internal working models in the intergenerational
fL"j7Fr3vg0transmission of attachment patterns. Individuals who grow up to become relatively stable
/Q7ZnPm A@b Z0and self-reliant, he postulates, normally have parents who are supportive when called upon, hut
Q,c5]@3t+_F0who also permit and encourage autonomy. Such parents tend not only to engage in fairly frank
;S"V%mN1I0communication of their own working models of self, of their child, and of others, hut also indicate 心理学空间HV ? Fx:y
to the child that these working models are open to questioning and revision. For this reason, says
l'rZS-L+S$i A0Bowlby, the inheritance of mental health and of ill health through family micro-culture is no less
U_c2l'zF"P M0important, and may well he far more important, than is genetic inheritance (Bowlby, 973, p. 323).
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V8r2yL.J*d9T.g8lN0Loss 心理学空间AL:a_ h9u;u x
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In the third volume of the attachment trilogy, Bowlby (1980a) uses information-processing
H;@ gd&R Meb&[+LN0theories to explain the increasing stability of internal working models as well as their defensive
/p I%k aH AB0distortion. The stability of internal working models derives from two sources: (a) patterns of
+b[Y*rw^qVU dD0interacting grow less accessible to awareness as they become habitual and automatic, and (b)
:B3x6Z(iK9V-D ^0dyadic patterns of relating are more resistant to change than individual patterns because of 心理学空间NK[oP$`wL

ck'Y"g9[0BU0
O F*K)C`-q0reciprocal expectancies.
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Given that old patterns of action and thought guide selective attention and information
-B @9ng:h4Iocdd0processing in new situations, some distortion of incoming information is normal and unavoidable.
n"I0Rk7zF.zZy0The adequacy of internal working models can be seriously undermined, however, when defensive
Y7f%N#_@ eI0exclusion of information from awareness interferes with their updating in response to developmental 心理学空间 Et8YZ b)l"Z2k F2S7p*?
and environmental change. 心理学空间*O*d)c(Ta(o;o7q
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To explain the workings of defensive processes, Bowlby cites evidence showing that 心理学空间,u ['AV$M
incoming information normally undergoes many stages of processing before reaching awareness 心理学空间g1y7cw&_`FZs/vt
(see Dixon, 1971; Erdelyi, 1974) At every stage, some information is retained for further
IH o}:?b(G0processing and the remainder discarded. That this may happen even after information has already 心理学空间b;D0N&x ~9_u
undergone very advanced levels of encoding is shown by dichotic listening studies, In these
#b$A9Qd1fa5L0studies, individuals who are presented with different messages to each ear through headphones
7b.ef I+Im0are able to selectively attend to one of them. That the unattended message is nevertheless 心理学空间4Z Dtxh*yq2I
receiving high level processing becomes obvious when the person becomes alerted to a word of 心理学空间 }.{MPj+u-c0j
personal significance (e.g., the person’s name) that has been inserted into the unattended
Y2F#CY(H]+Wq:d0message. 心理学空间W] xL!mGs+\ne

FD8nk%}(E)h HV ?Y0Bowlby proposes that defensive exclusion of information from awareness derives from the 心理学空间 w~2y(Ia\9D5j
same processes as selective exclusion, although the motivation for the two types of exclusion 心理学空间1i2S2mPb_
differs. Three situations are believed to render children particularly prone to engaging in defensive 心理学空间2idB^ q._Z
exclusion: situations that parents do not wish their children to know about even though the 心理学空间/J$a3pL-i
children have witnessed them, situations in which the children find the parents’ behavior too 心理学空间hx CmJ
unbearable to think about, and situations in which children have done or thought about doing 心理学空间 P5p&Q K*`!H)C?
something of which they are deeply ashamed.
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6W+\'k-]2H`7?Q]/zv0Although defensive exclusion protects the individual from experiencing unbearable mental 心理学空间`Y}-bX&Q?;V
pain, confusion, or conflict, it is hound to interfere with the accommodation of internal working 心理学空间$~ VUh|IO
models to external reality. Indeed, a number of clinical studies reviewed in Separation (e.g., Cain 心理学空间u4Y_#Q P?2F0J ~
& Fast, 1972) suggest that defensive exclusion leads to a split in internal working models. One set 心理学空间o)qz ^7[
of working models- accessible to awareness and discussion and based on what a child has been
Ni@_,x-} g;L0told-represents the parent as good and the parent’s rejecting behavior as caused by the “badness”
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\Fj)T/seI~_ H0of the child, The other model, based on what the child has experienced but defensively excluded 心理学空间Z[5Y-B0gL-r$pr
from awareness, represents the hated or disappointing side of the parent.
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8xn3A q(rr%j9MBw0In Loss, Bowlby attempts to shed further light on these repressive and dissociative
$g3y@%lb4E Rh0phenomena with the aid of Tulving’s (1972) distinction between episodic and semantic memory.
4^ ];V"jd~z"Y8x.o0According to Tulving, autobiographical experience is encoded in episodic memory, whereas 心理学空间 a+J1R j0? ]"I
generic propositions are stored in semantic memory, with each memory system possibly using
(`(B[%GEQ"k;z0distinct storage mechanisms. Generic knowledge may derive from information supplied by others
H ] yu \NzSZV0and from actual experience. Bowlby surmises that severe psychic conflict is likely to arise when 心理学空间 aF G1~q*{ y@
the two sources of stored information (generalizations built on actual experience and on 心理学空间S5f.N(^;b T ~:x I
communications from others) are highly contradictory. In such cases, defensive exclusion may be 心理学空间!Sh'Fe~
brought to bear on episodic memories of actual experience. According to Bowlby, such processes 心理学空间 FYP-|6oi l
are especially likely in bereaved children under 3 years of age.
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Finally, in Loss, Bowlby also considers a more complex related prob1cm, namely, the 心理学空间J)p2sZ$P/|
control of simultaneously active behavioral systems. In Attachment and Separation, the interplay 心理学空间8]L2N6K2f7Nv(`
among behavioral systems was implicitly treated as one of competition, not higher level regulation
#`K krACq"D0(see also Bretherton & Ainsworth, 1974). In Loss, Bowlby posits an executive structure that
L3H8V&yhFu~S0takes the place of Freud’s (1923/1961) concept of ego. The central nervous system, Bowlby 心理学空间rQ!T"cF4|
suggests, is organized in a loosely hierarchical way, with an enormous network of two-way 心理学空间l B+dl PN$QDn*_-v d
communications among subsystems. At the top of the hierarchy, he posits one or perhaps several
4~F)F+R;f0principal evaluators or controllers, closely linked to long-term memory. Their task is to scan 心理学空间+b~$SG-y7nZs al)]_
incoming information for relevance. If evaluated as relevant, it may be stored in short-term 心理学空间4zp^#A e m
memory to select aspects thereof for further processing. 心理学空间 w N(Ie*IH/XdAb|

2LW*{3pBX.@'}N0Conscious processing is likely to facilitate high-level activities such as categorizing, retrieving,
}hZ+{M f5}{1_6]-}0comparing, framing plans, and inspection of overlearned, automated action systems. In a 心理学空间A{]!K;S+iX#J#B:`
unified personality, Bowlby claims, the principal system or systems can access all memories in 心理学空间%j`/V y H\3fI
whatever type of storage they are held. However, in some cases, the principal system or systems 心理学空间%z [}'W&^qO*D~
may nor be unified or capable of unimpeded intercommunication with all subsystems. In this case,
9TEtq}ck0particular behavioral systems may not he activated when appropriate, or signals from these 心理学空间c d:iVs `T!|
behavioral systems may not become conscious, although fragments of defensively excluded
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(g#y nq E0information may at times seep through.
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9L j }+F5N&@+k)z;R{h0Some of the dissociative or repressive phenomena involved in the deactivation of the 心理学空间+K`2U?}#aY'T
attachment system occur during pathological mourning. For example, complete or partial 心理学空间P8{#z]3lL`'kT
disconnection of an emotional response from its cause is frequent. When the disconnection is only 心理学空间2S:OL5ZJ b ? M
partial, emotional responses may be directed away from the person who caused them to third 心理学空间xZ&L:^y ENQ\
persons or to the self. I knee, a bereaved person may become morbidly preoccupied with personal
J k(an op0reactions and sufferings, rather than attributing his or her feelings to the loss of a close 心理学空间2Ve bQ-TQ/o*n
relationship. Similarly, in disordered mourning, a bereaved person’s disposition toward compulsive
1]{0Or/X0caregiving may derive from the redirection of attachment behavior. The individual may he
mE P8W%s{%K0taking the role of attachment figure instead of seeking care. 心理学空间[!z*Hq @
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Attachment and Therapy 心理学空间;f6Gmx.y/i
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This discussion of defensive processes leads into the topic that preoccupied Bowlby during
`c{BL$K U0the last 10 years of his life: the uses of attachment theory in psychotherapy (Bowlby, 1988),
Z J-r W!?&Mm0Under attachment theory, a major goal in psychotherapy is the reappraisal of inadequate, 心理学空间:Z F@ TG p0t0d`
outdated working models of self in relation to attachment figures, a particularly difficult task if
-x^o P"lv{_l0important others, especially parents, have forbidden their review. As psychoanalysts have 心理学空间;f7Z8[c'K],KVL
repeatedly noted, a person with inadequate, rigid working models of attachment relations is likely
+p&}o*x2w$sG0to inappropriately impose these models on interactions with the therapist (a phenomenon known 心理学空间3] Y:X_&S;@+o;Q5d/l
as transference). The joint task 0f therapist and client is to understand the origins of the client’s 心理学空间.Amcv@
dysfunctional internal working models of self and attachment figures, Toward this end, the 心理学空间oE7n r,Q
therapist can be most helpful by serving as a reliable, secure base from which an individual can 心理学空间i$R-U:\Sa
begin the arduous task of exploring and reworking his or her internal working models.
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