A.安娜斯塔西
安妮·安娜斯塔西 [Anne Anastasi 1908.12.19－2001.05.04]，美国心理学家，出生于美国纽约。她是首位当选为美国心理学会主席的女性（1972），1981 年美国心理学会应用心理学杰出科学奖和 1983 年美国教育研究协会教育研究杰出贡献奖获得得者。
她在 15 岁时就进入巴纳德学院，后来获文学士学位，在哥伦比亚大学获哲学博士学位，当时只有 21 岁。她曾希望学习数学，但皮尔斯伯里的《心理学纲要》这门课程激发了她对该领域的兴趣。之后，H.L. 霍林活恩的一门课程和 C.斯皮尔曼的一篇论文决定了她的专业方向，斯皮尔曼使她确信心理学和数学可以结合。
她曾先后师从 H.E.加勒特、A.T.波芬伯格、C.J.沃登、R.S.伍德沃思，以及访问教授 R.M.埃里奥特和 C.L.赫尔。她还通过她的丈夫，在印第安纳大学主攻心理学的 J.P.福利，接触到 R.坎特的思想。所有的这些影响，使得她最终树立了心理学是一门客观科学的坚定信念。
安娜斯塔西的主要学术思想有：
坚信早期经验对智慧成与发展的影响。极力主张应有一项计划，以集中力量改善儿童（特别是处境不利儿童）的早期生活的环境条件。
坚信智力测验。认为不应由于某些儿童的智商较低而抛弃智力测验，造成社会歧视的原因不在于测量工具而在于人。
提出对遗传和环境之争的看法。认为与其辩论哪个因素对儿童发展的作用更大，不如探讨它们如何在差异中发生相互作用的机制。
安娜斯塔西曾执教于巴纳德学院、纽约市立大学昆斯学院、福德姆大学。她的研究中心主要集中在因素分析及其特征、测验编制问题以及测验分数的解释上。这些测验分数对个体差异和团体差异方面的文化因素作用具有特殊的参考价值。
主要著作：
差异心理学
应用心理学领域
心理测验
Education
Educated at home by her grandmother and a private tutor until age 9
Dropped out of high school after only two months
Two years at the Rhodes Preparatory School in Manhattan (1922-1923)
Entered Barnard College at the age of 15. Graduated at the age of 19 (A.B. in Psychology, 1928)
Columbia University (Ph.D. in Psychology, 1929)
Career
Instructor in Psychology, Barnard College (1930-1939)
Assistant Professor and Chairperson of the Psychology Department, Queens College (1939-1947)
Associate Professor of Psychology, Fordham University (1947-1951)
President of the Eastern Psychological Association (1946-1947)
President of the APA Division 1, General Psychology (1956-1957)
President of the APA Division 5, Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics (1965-1966)
President of the American Psychological Foundation (1965-1967)
Third female president of the American Psychological Association (1972)
Definition of Intelligence
"Intelligence is not a single, unitary ability, but rather a composite of several functions. The term denotes that combination of abilities required for survival and advancement within a particular culture." (Anastasi, 1992)
"Intelligence can be improved at any age, but the earlier one begins the greater will be the returns from one")s efforts." (Anastasi, 1981)
Major Contributions
Known as the "test guru"
Extensive examination of issues related to test construction, test misuse, misinterpretation and cultural bias
Argued against the strictly hereditarian position; emphasized the role of experiential, environmental and cultural influences on intelligence test scores
Viewed intelligence as changeable over time
More than 150 publications, including two "classic" textbooks: Psychological Testing (1st edition 1954; 7th edition, 1996) and Differential Psychology (1st edition 1937; 4th edition, 1981)
Ideas and Interests
Anne Anastasi grew up in New York City, the only child in a small Sicilian family. Her father died when she was an infant, and she was raised by her mother, grandmother and uncle. Her grandmother was a domineering woman who maintained stewardship over most issues in family life, including young Anne")s education. She believed herself to be a true aristocrat, and categorized all those whom she met as either aristocrats or peasants. (Anastasi, 1989) Anastasi")s uncle was a man of superior classical education, but he was ill prepared for real-world employment. In contrast, Anastasi")s mother was a practical, resourceful woman, and it was she who shouldered the burden of supporting the family. (Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990) Anastasi believed that the juxtaposition of these three personalities might have been a reason for her later professional interest in the psychology of individual differences. (Anastasi, 1989)
Anastasi")s grandmother disapproved of the boisterous neighborhood children, and insisted that she be educated at home. (Anastasi, 1989) When she was nine years old, a private tutor convinced her grandmother to allow her to attend a public elementary school. Anastasi enjoyed her early schooling, but her high school experience was disappointing. The building was overcrowded, rundown and very far from her home. She dropped out after only two months. (Anastasi, 1972) At the suggestion of a family friend, she decided to skip high school entirely. She spent two years preparing for the college entrance examinations, and was admitted to Barnard College at the age of fifteen. (Anastasi, 1972; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990)
Anastasi entered college as a math major. During her sophomore year she enrolled in an elective psychology class taught by H.L. Hollingworth. His enthusiasm and intensity impressed her, as did his sharp criticisms of sloppy research practices. (Anastasi, 1989; Sexton & Hogan, 1990) Later the same year, Anastasi read a Charles Spearman article on correlation coefficients, (Spearman, 1904) and realized that she did not need to abandon mathematics to pursue her emerging interest in psychology. (Anastasi, 1972, 1989; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001) She switched majors and completed a bachelor")s degree in psychology at the age of nineteen. After graduation from Barnard, she entered Columbia University, requesting that her undergraduate work be accepted in lieu of a master")s degree. She completed her doctorate in two years. (Anastasi, 1972, 1989)
Anne Anastasi")s research focused on understanding and statistically measuring the factors underlying the development of individual differences in psychological traits. (Anastasi, 1972, 1989) She argued against the strictly hereditarian position, emphasizing the role of experiential and environmental influences on intelligence test scores and psychological development. She stressed that intelligence test scores are not pure measures of innate ability:
...not only does the nature of one")s antecedent experiences affect the degree of differentiation of "intelligence" into distinct abilities, but it also affects the particular abilities that emerge, such as verbal, numerical, and spatial abilities. Thus, experiential factors affect not only the level of the individual")s intellectual development, but also the very categories in terms of which his abilities may be identified. (Anastasi, 1972)
Anastasi believed that most claims about "culture-free" and "culture-fair" testing are untrue. She stressed that different cultures have different concepts of what an "intelligent person" is, and that traditional psychometric tests measure only those skills which are valued in academic and work circles within modern, industrialized social contexts. The dominant intelligence test paradigm presupposes that intelligence tests should assess the individual")s ability to succeed in this environment. However, the value of these tests is ephemeral; new tests will have to be developed as society advances and new technology demands cultivation of different cognitive skills. Anastasi emphasized that there is an alternative to this testing model. Other assessments could be developed to measure "how well individuals have acquired skills and knowledge valued in [their own] culture." She believed that although both types of tests can be valid as intelligence tests, the way in which intelligence is defined would necessarily be different for each construct. (Anastasi, 1981)
Anastasi")s research increased awareness of what intelligence tests should and should not be used for. She cautioned test users against misinterpreting results, emphasizing that intelligence is changeable over time, and that intelligence (not just intelligence test scores) can improve with experience. Therefore, intelligence test scores should never be used to label a student indelibly. (Anastasi, 1992)
Tests can serve a predictive function only insofar as they indicate to what extent the individual has acquired the prerequisite skills and knowledge for a designated criterion performance. What persons can accomplish in the future depends not only on their present intellectual status, as assessed by the test, but on their subsequent experience. (Anastasi, 1981)
Intelligence tests can do three things:
They permit a direct assessment of prerequisite intellectual skills demanded by many important
tasks in our culture.
They assess availability of a relevant store of knowledge or content also prerequisite for many
educational and occupational tasks.
They provide an indirect index of the extent to which the individual has developed effective learning strategies, problem-solving techniques and work habits and utilized them in the past.
(Quoted from Anastasi, 1981)
When intelligence test scores are used properly, they are valuable descriptive tools that allow teachers and counselors to determine a student")s current level of academic performance. Although an intelligence test score cannot tell us why a student scored as he did, the score can make it easier to meet a student at his level, and to design educational experiences that will improve intelligence. (Anastasi, 1981)
Selected Publications
Anastasi, A. (1981). Differential psychology. (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Anastasi, A. (1983). Psychological testing. In C.E. Walker (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology: Theory, research and practice (Vol.1, pp.420-444). Homewood, Ill: Dow-Jones Irwin.
Anastasi, A. (1983). What do intelligence tests measure? In S.B. Anderson & J.S. Helmick (Eds.), On educational testing: Intelligence, performance standards, test anxiety, and latent traits (pp.5-28). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1984). Aptitude and achievement tests: The curious case of the indestructible strawperson. In B.S. Plake (Ed.(, Social and technical issues in testing: Implications for test construction and usage (pp. 129-140). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anastasi, A. (1985). Psychological testing: Basic concepts and common misconceptions. In A.M. Rogers & C.J. Scheirer (Eds.), The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series (Vol. 5, pp.87-120). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Anastasi, A. (1986). Evolving concepts of test validations. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 1-15.
Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In R.J Sternberg & D.K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 19-21). Norwood NJ: Ablex.
Anastasi, A. (1996). Psychological testing (7th ed.). New York: Macmillian.
References
Anastasi, A. (1972). Reminiscences of a differential psychologist. In T.S. Krawiec (Ed.), The psychologists (pp.3-37). London: Oxford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1981). Diverse effects of training on tests of academic intelligence. In B.F. Green (Ed.), Issues in testing: Coaching, disclosure, and ethnic bias. (pp.5-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1989). Anne Anastasi. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography: Vol. 7. (pp.1-37). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1992). What counselors should know about the use and interpretation of psychological tests. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70 (5), 610-615.
Reznikoff, M., & Procidano, M. (2001). Anne Anastasi. American Psychologist, 56 (10), 816-817.
Sexton, V.S., & Hogan, J.D. (1990). Anne Anastasi. In A.N. O")Connell and N.F. Russo (Eds.), Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. (pp.13-22). New York: Greenwood Press.
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. American Journal of psychology, 15, 201-293.
Image courtesy of The Archives Of The History Of Psychology, The University Of Akron
