《依恋》by Susan Goldberg
作者: Susan Goldberg博士 / 31858次阅读 时间: 2011年6月14日
来源: AboutKidsHealth
www.psychspace.com心理学空间网

依恋第二部分:依恋模式
Llhq5NZ]$@1h0Attachment part two: Patterns of attachment

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%r3kW z3bt,a0在我们的多-部分依恋系列的第一部分里,我们看到了依恋模式在婴儿-照顾者关系中是如何发展的,以满足婴儿对舒适和安全的强大需求。在这第二部分里,Goldberg博士提供了对婴儿期的各种依恋模式的详细描述。心理学空间"VhD~F(Pu

,Nf7UQ/yC1LeB d\5y0作者:Susan Goldberg 博士心理学空间.`a$s C A.av
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通过在自然的设置中对母亲-婴儿的仔细观察,Mary Ainsworth 注意到婴儿离开母亲去探索和然后再返回来寻求安慰和爱抚的方式的不同。这些观察给出了安全基的概念。
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GK f/E#H%Xz0安全基心理学空间 }'S%W:z#s/Q*D7P/e
安全基的概念变成依恋理论的基础。一个婴儿自然地把他或她的主要照顾者作为一种提供安慰和保护的来源。在理想的情况下,照顾者代表了从安全基,婴儿可以自信地探索。对照顾者的信心在婴儿的第一年得到发展,这些信心是基于当婴儿生病,受伤或情绪低落时照顾者的反应而建立起来的。如果婴儿得知他或她的安全基没有反应或不可靠,其探索过程将受到不利的影响,婴儿对需求的表达也随之受到影响。心理学空间t%p,Cm z%xI9C:?
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1963年,Mary Ainsworth 设计出来'陌生情境法',在实验室环境中研究婴幼儿的依恋行为。使用这一创新性的技术,Ainsworth能够系统地观察在陌生的环境中,婴儿与主要照顾者分离时的反应。心理学空间7O/u_/p9QD+q

\;~_-UJ&c0陌生情境法是一个20分钟的过程,包括两个短暂的婴儿和照顾者之间的分离和团聚。对婴儿行为的各个方面进行观察。婴儿对分离和团聚的反应,在照顾者在场和不在场的情况下,他或她的探索行为的质量,以及婴儿被安慰的能力,都是受到密切观察的行为,这些行为被赋予代码,以确定婴儿在一个具体的婴儿-照顾者关系中的依恋模式。虽然所有这些行为都与依恋模式有关,但团聚行为最能显示安全型和不安全型的婴儿-照顾者依恋关系之间的区别。心理学空间NNhIi2{2{
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依恋模式心理学空间P6EY7np.t g&q
Ainsworth的研究导致了三种依恋模式的鉴定。一般地说,她把婴儿-照顾者关系描述为或安全或不安全。根据婴儿所显示出来的行为的特定模式,不安全依恋可以进一步细分为回避型或反抗型。对于每一种依恋模式,都有与其相应的照顾风格。
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安全依恋
a^%~.M:H/po/E0大部分(55-65%)婴儿显示出安全依恋模式,被认为是最佳的依恋分类。
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一个有安全型依恋关系的婴儿,在照顾者在场的情况下,自由地探索其周围的存在,不时地检查他或她是否一直在场,并在照顾者不在场的情况下,限制其探索行为。一个与其照顾者之间有安全型依恋关系的婴儿,将在照顾者不在场时显示出不同水平的不安,但对与照顾者的团聚有积极的回应。婴儿将在受到困扰时,寻求与照顾者的接触,在得到接触和受到安慰之后,马上安顿下来。
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一名促成安全型依恋的照顾者对他或她的婴儿的信号是敏感的,接受的,他们接受他们的婴儿的不安,并以一致的方式应用这一积极的养育风格。心理学空间t0Oh!^-S'E(n

hl@+n9H;F j Yb0不安全依恋心理学空间8].l oh_/KE
消除婴儿痛苦的示例
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;CX4V J2`0本短片显示的是一位母亲通过分散孩子的注意力或使其痛苦最小化来响应孩子的疼痛。这会对孩子有持续影响,并影响他稍后发展健康关系的能力。
f1kd u.RY0不安全依恋归类为回避型或反抗型。一般来说,与不安全依恋的婴儿的照顾者往往不太响应他们的婴儿不安的迹象。这些照顾者没有用身体,心理,或情绪作出响应,往往不够敏感,或对他们对依恋需要的反应缺乏预见性。心理学空间z-GM/J9s!J6i

_T?5xT0回避型依恋
*G-y+x0{%Q"^ W0约20%-25%的婴儿对他们的照顾者表现出回避型依恋模式。有回避型依恋关系的孩子似乎不关心照顾者是否在场或不在场。在照顾者在场的情况下,回避型的孩子将探索周围环境,但对照顾者在哪里并没有兴趣。在照顾者离开的情况下,回避型依恋的婴儿显示出来的不安的程度最低。在团聚时,他们不主动走向照顾者或尝试亲密的接触。事实上,他们常常忽略或回避其照顾者。尽管这显然缺乏关注,回避型依恋模式的婴儿显示出较多的生理兴奋,如果不是比其他婴儿更多的话,这意味着他们已经学会控制自己的不安。心理学空间:x-Lkx;U4|
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回避型依恋与当婴儿情绪低落,生病,或受伤害时,照顾者没有提供足够的安慰的照顾风格有联系。心理学空间;v0j/k ir2{S
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反抗型/矛盾型依恋
G*xTJVGs0约10%-15%的婴儿对他们的照顾者显示出反抗型依恋模式。反抗型依恋关系的特点是过分地表达依恋的需要。在他们的照顾者在场的情况下,这些婴儿不愿意探索周围环境,并专注于得到他们的照顾者的关注。当照顾者离开时,有反抗型依恋的婴儿变得非常不安。当照顾者的回来时,他们寻求接触,同时也抵制接触。当他们确实寻求接触时,他们不容易被安慰,对照顾者的试图抚慰他们的努力反应不够良好。
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反抗型依恋与照顾者对他或她的婴儿的不安信号的响应不一致的照顾模式有关。
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pVM fqs6u H0紊乱型/混乱型依恋
9?.bX+p6ox\`&@0对婴儿痛苦作出矛盾响应的示例
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本短片显示的是一位母亲对孩子的痛苦作出矛盾响应。这导致孩子不知道对父母有何期待,并且他会不确定如何获得关爱与好感。
Pk;} rE/|0一组婴儿(15%-20%)不属于Ainsworth的最初的3类划分。Mary Main,另一为有影响力的依恋研究者,增加了第四类,把这些婴儿包括进来。
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c} v*b2jK s03个主要的依恋组已经组织制定战略应对兴奋,而有紊乱型依恋关系的婴儿缺乏有组织的行为模式,或策略一再被打破。当有压力时,在他们的照顾者在场时,这些婴儿有紊乱的和迷失的表现,显示出不寻常的行为,如在接近他们的照顾者时把头转过去,恍惚,或奇怪的姿势。这些行为被解释为与照顾者有关的恐惧或混乱的证据。紊乱型依恋被认为是不安全感的极端形式。
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很多有紊乱型依恋的婴儿经历过一些形式的虐待,或其照顾者经历过遭受严重损失或虐待而产生的创伤。其他有压力的环境涉及家庭重组,如搬家或另一个孩子的出生也可能暂时地使一个婴儿-照顾者的依恋关系模式出现紊乱。心理学空间m e;nAk7n F9kqFs
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依恋行为的意义心理学空间F9`L3d'r(nD6y
一个婴儿的依恋模式是基于他或她的对于照顾者作为舒适和安全来源的可靠性的理解,并受这一理解的战略制约。
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婴儿发展的最初阶段,是了解照顾者作为安全基的可靠性。有安全型依恋的婴儿的照顾者始终敏感,感知并接受他们的婴儿的不安的信号。因此,有安全型依恋关系的婴儿懂得,他们可以对获得保护有信心。他们在陌生情境的行为体现了这一自信,他们自由地探索周围环境,公开地表达他们的需要,并且接受他们的照顾者所给予的安慰。
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?nYz I%P0与此相反,有不安全型依恋的婴儿缺乏信心,不把照顾者作为一个安全基。这种不安全感显著地影响着一个婴儿的行为,以及情感表达的质量。心理学空间D6SA7G ~X!a
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考虑在回避型依恋关系中一个婴儿明显的独立性和早熟。这样的婴儿其实并不在意照顾者是否在场或不在场,并很有可能在团聚后怠慢照顾者。但是,其实每个婴儿的人身安全都是本能的和至关重要的。
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#R Hi&vm0回避型依恋模式的婴儿,在其生病,受伤或不安的时候,已经多次地感受到主要照顾者的拒绝。因此,这些婴儿懂得他们不能指望照顾者来满足其依恋需要。为了避免进一步的被拒绝,在回避型依恋关系中的婴儿限制他或她的情感表达。在这方面来看,回避型依恋关系中的婴儿所表现出来的漠不关心的态度就能够解释得通,它是一个有效的与照顾者维持接触的战略,照顾者不能提供安慰,但确实提供其他种类的照顾和保护。
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有对抗型依恋的婴儿的照顾者对他们的婴儿的依恋需要的反应不一致。对于父母有不一致反应的婴儿的最好战略是,投入大量的精力,争取帮助。这解释了这些婴儿为什么在陌生情景中对他们的需要有长期和夸张的表达,以及为什么他们专注于吸引照顾者的注意。
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dI:i,[@"ZU0有回避型和反抗型依恋的婴儿的有组织策略,说明了婴儿对感知中的安全威胁有适应性的反应。当受到保护的信心发生动摇时,行为和情感表达出现变化,试图争取到与照顾者的接触。
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+R2I(L:QjT'm0有紊乱型依恋的婴儿的不寻常行为,即使从婴儿的角度来考虑,也是难于理解的。许多有紊乱型依恋模式的婴儿,很容易受高度紧张,混乱,和可怕环境的影响。
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1b0Sm {)C0作为一个例子,紊乱型依恋有时会发生在照顾者本人经历极端损失,或创伤之后。研究人员推测,照顾者无法从悲痛的损失中恢复,例如照顾者自己的父母死亡,或照顾者被其父母虐待,巧妙地传达出一种焦虑感,恐惧感,和/或对他们自己婴儿的敌意。这种情况对于婴儿来说是非常紊乱的,因为应该是一个作为安慰源泉的人,也是一种威胁或恐惧的来源。当面对这种不可能的局面时,婴儿试图瓦解有组织的战略。
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0J'C1tLdm0一般来说,一个婴儿的安全意识,可以被看成一个连续体。有了较强的安全感,一个婴儿就觉得可以自由地探索和尝试其周围的世界。如果对受到保护的信心产生动摇,婴儿的世界就开始收缩,其自由探索就会因怀疑和恐惧感而蒙上阴影。心理学空间,h8x7``J"_9N
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一个婴儿的基本依恋模式在婴儿生命的第一年里发展起来。虽然被认为是比较抗拒变化,随着婴儿的发展和成熟,生活环境的变化能够改变依恋模式。心理学空间bQ{0N-TE)`*\

Y}TO;D;IhZ*~0在我们系列的第三部分,我们将着眼于整个生命过程中的依恋。将对较大的儿童,青少年和成人的依恋予以讨论,依恋模式对情感和社会发展的影响也将一并予以讨论。
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H/s'o;?h.lA7hF0Diane Benoit, MD, FRCPC心理学空间o'L`%~ QI[}

g8J4B z2_5C5|t-t0Sheri Madigan, PhD, C.Psych (监督实践)心理学空间'{`S7sq%dB wo
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5/10/2010
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#OT&qHP&{3M L bJ0Benoit D. Attachment and parent-infant relationships... a review of attachment theory and research. Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies Journal. 2000;44(1):13-23.心理学空间P0k p j!O9D&H(S d

Xl*FD,O r0Goldberg S. Attachment and Development. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press; 2000.心理学空间 KU$J0z*nX

h%M9k8B5[q0Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J, eds. Attachment Theory. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press; 1995.
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Karen R. Becoming Attached. New York: Warner Books; 1994.
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The Infant Mental Health Promotion Project and the Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children. A Simple Gift: Comforting Your Baby [video]. Toronto: The Hospital for Sick Children; 1998. Used by permission.心理学空间'Cj:~vn6V a
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Key points

  • A primary caregiver represents a secure base from which an infant can confidently explore and to which they will naturally return to as a source of comfort and protection.
  • There are four general attachment patterns: a secure pattern; an insecure-avoidant pattern; a resistant attachment pattern; and a disorganized attachment pattern.
  • An infant's attachment pattern is determined and based on their understanding of their caregiver’s reliability as a source of comfort and security.
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Through careful observation of mother-infant pairs in naturalistic settings, Mary Ainsworth noted differences in the way infants moved away from their mothers to explore and then returned for reassurance and affection. These observations gave rise to the concept of the secure base.心理学空间wZQ2E l5K;m9G@

The secure base

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The concept of a secure base became fundamental to attachment theory. An infant naturally turns to their primary caregiver as a source of comfort and protection. Ideally, the caregiver represents a secure base from which an infant can confidently explore. Confidence in a caregiver develops over the first year of life as a result of the caregiver's response to the infant's signals when ill, hurt or emotionally upset. If the infant learns that their base of security is either unresponsive or unreliable, exploration will be adversely affected along with the infant's expression of needs. 心理学空间3uQm GyH

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In 1963 Mary Ainsworth designed the 'Strange Situation Paradigm' to study the attachment behaviours of infants and young children in the laboratory. Using this innovative technique, Ainsworth was able to systematically observe infants' reactions to separation from primary caregivers in an unfamiliar environment. 心理学空间.M AE pw!{4~(\

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The Strange Situation Paradigm is a 20-minute procedure involving two brief separations and reunions between the infant and caregiver. Various aspects of the infant's behaviour are observed. The infant's response to the separations and reunions, the quality of their exploratory behaviour in the presence and absence of the caregiver, and the infant's ability to be soothed, are the behaviours that are closely observed and coded to determine the infant's attachment pattern within a specific infant-caregiver relationship. Although all of these behaviours are relevant to attachment patterns, reunion behaviour is what most distinguishes secure from insecure infant-caregiver attachment relationships. 心理学空间1E"O#X(xt7F

Attachment patterns

o2X+L7Gb9CH3Y&K0d!\0Ainsworth’s research led to the identification of three attachment patterns. In general, she described infant-caregiver relationships as either secure or insecure. Insecure attachment can be further subdivided into either an avoidant or resistant patterns depending on the particular pattern of behaviour displayed by the infant. For each attachment pattern there is a corresponding caregiving style.

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Secure attachment

!|Ok/`;b7^'fh0The majority (55% to 65%) of infants demonstrate secure patterns of attachment, considered the optimal attachment classification.心理学空间qaK;H.h\ ~

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An infant in a secure attachment relationship explores freely in the presence of the caregiver, checks on them periodically, and restricts exploration during the caregiver’s absence. An infant who is securely attached with a caregiver will show varying levels of distress in the absence of the caregiver but responds positively to the caregiver’s return. The infant will seek contact with the caregiver when distressed and will settle down once contact is made and comfort is provided.

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A caregiver who promotes secure attachment is sensitive to their infant's signals, receptive and accepting of their infant's distress, and consistent in applying this positive parenting style. 心理学空间Y]y"U w]5N

Insecure attachment

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Insecure attachment is classified as either avoidant or resistant. In general, caregivers of infants with insecure attachment tend to be less responsive to their infant's signs of distress. These caregivers are unavailable either physically, psychologically or emotionally and tend to be insensitive or unpredictable in their response to attachment needs.心理学空间`%hGM8M

Avoidant attachment

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About 20% to 25% of infants demonstrate avoidant attachment patterns with their caregiver. Children in avoidant attachment relationships seem not to care whether a caregiver is present or absent. In the presence of the caregiver, avoidant children will explore their environment without interest in the caregiver's whereabouts. Upon departure infants with avoidant attachment are minimally distressed. At reunion, they do not move toward the caregiver or try to initiate contact. In fact, they often ignore or avoid the caregiver. Despite this apparent lack of concern, infants with avoidant attachment patterns show as much, if not more, physiological arousal than other infants, suggesting that they have learned to contain their distress. 心理学空间CB9LKI-R+y

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Avoidant attachment has been associated with a pattern of care in which the caregiver does not provide adequate comfort when the infant is emotionally upset, ill or hurt.

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Resistant/ambivalent attachment

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About 10% to 15% of infants demonstrate resistant attachment patterns with their caregiver. Resistant attachment relationships are characterized by exaggerated expressions of attachment needs. In the presence of their caregiver these infants are reluctant to explore their environment and preoccupied with getting the attention of their caregiver. When a caregiver departs, infants with resistant attachment become extremely distressed. When the caregiver returns, they both seek and resist contact. When they do seek contact they have difficulty settling down and do not respond well to their caregiver’s attempts at soothing.

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Resistant attachment has been associated with a pattern of care in which the caregiver inconsistently responds to their infant's signals of distress.

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Disorganized/disoriented attachment

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There is a group of infants (15% to 20%) who do not fit into Ainsworth’s original three-category scheme. Mary Main, another influential attachment researcher, added a fourth category to include these infants.

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7o&ud8] U^]0Whereas infants in the three primary attachment groups have organized strategies for dealing with arousal, infants with disorganized attachment relationships either lack an organized pattern to their behaviour or have strategies that repeatedly break down. When stressed, in the presence of their caregiver, these infants appear disorganized or disoriented, displaying unusual behaviours such as approaching the caregiver with their head averted, trance-like freezing or strange postures. These behaviours have been interpreted as evidence of fear or confusion with respect to the caregiver. Disorganized attachment is considered an extreme form of insecure attachment. 心理学空间6@}tTF0tS"z

5II5h'F7hBN Z^0Many infants who fall into the disorganized category have experienced some form of maltreatment or have a caregiver who has been traumatized by severe loss or abuse. Other stressful situations involving reorganization of the family such as family moves or the birth of another child may also temporarily disorganize attachment patterns in an infant-caregiver relationship. 心理学空间1_QmIl%Y9d

The meaning of attachment behaviours

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An infant's attachment pattern is strategically determined and based on their understanding of the caregiver’s reliability as a source of comfort and security.

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^9i2C+Pd0From the earliest stages of development an infant is learning about the caregiver's reliability as a secure base. Caregivers of infants with secure attachment are consistently sensitive, receptive and accepting of their infant's signals of distress. Thus, infants in secure attachment relationships learn that they can be confident in their protection. Their behaviour in the Strange Situation reflects this confidence as they freely explore their environment, openly express their needs and accept comfort from their caregivers. 心理学空间E!\}&^*eM i3a&e.@*v

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Infants with insecure attachment in contrast are not confident about the caregiver as a secure base. This insecurity dramatically impacts an infant's behaviour and quality of emotional expression.

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Consider the apparent independence and precociousness of an infant in an avoidant attachment relationship. Such an infant seems not to care whether a caregiver is present or absent and is likely to snub the caregiver upon reunion. But in fact for every infant personal security is instinctively of critical importance.

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j[7q9a|.eA.gdlT0Infants with avoidant attachment patterns have repeatedly felt rejected by primary caregivers during times of illness, injury or distress. As a result these infants learn that they cannot count on the caregiver to meet their attachment needs. To avoid further rejection, the infant in an avoidant attachment relationship limits their emotional expressions. Seen in this context, the apparent indifference of the infant's involved in an avoidant attachment relationship begins to make sense as an effective strategy for maintaining contact with a caregiver who is unable to provide comfort but does provide other kinds of care and protection. 心理学空间YS%hQ/_X U

f nfS.ePK'}0Caregivers of infants with resistant attachment have responded inconsistently to their infant's attachment needs. The best strategy for infants of inconsistent parents is to devote a lot of energy to soliciting help. This explains these infants' prolonged and exaggerated expressions of their needs and preoccupation with attracting their caregivers' attention during the Strange Situation paradigm.

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{Ra1H }C0The organized strategies of infants with avoidant and resistant attachment illustrate the infants' adaptive response to perceived threats to security. When confidence in protection wavers, behaviour and emotional expression change in an attempt to secure contact with caregivers. 心理学空间&QS?*xVY9A^ D

)~+{3Ra D'Pkv0The unusual behaviour of the infant with disorganized attachment is more difficult to understand even when considered from the infant's perspective. Many infants with disorganized attachment patterns have been subjected to highly stressful, chaotic and frightening environments. 心理学空间 A.@3y)MD I$~[ L

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As an example, disorganized attachment sometimes occurs following extreme loss or trauma on the part of a caregiver. Researchers speculate that caregivers who are unable to recover from tragic losses, for example the death of their own parent, or abuse by a parent, subtly communicate a sense of anxiety, fearfulness and/or hostility toward their infant. This situation is highly disorganizing to the infant because the person who is supposed to be a source of comfort is also a source of threat or fear. Faced with this impossible situation, the infant's attempts at an organized strategy breaks down.

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In general, an infant's sense of security can be thought of as being on a continuum. With a strong sense of security, an infant feels free to explore and venture out into the world. If confidence in protection falters, the infant's world begins to contract as the freedom to explore is overshadowed by a sense of doubt and apprehension. 心理学空间j Z9OjwC

h:U8YU nE1q}@h0An infant's basic pattern of attachment develops during the first year of life. Although thought to be relatively resistant to change, changes in life circumstances can alter attachment patterns as infants develop and mature.

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In Attachment part three: Attachment across the life span, we will look at attachment in older children, teens and adults and the implications of attachment patterns for emotional and social development.

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