www.psychspace.com心理学空间网 CHALLENGING TASKS FOR ATTACHMENT THEORY
In the preceding section, I have outlined the many new directions into which attachment
research is branching out. It is difficult to predict which of these efforts will he most fruitful. No
doubt, additions, revisions, and challenges to the theory will continue to arise our of future empirical
studies. In this final section, however, I would like to focus briefly on some of the theoretical
tasks that lie ahead. The idea that human motivation derives from an interplay of familiarity-
and novelty-seeking systems needs further exploration, as does the notion that the human personality
can be conceptualized as a hierarchy of interlinked systems. New theoretical treatments
of defensive processes in the construction of internal working models of attachment need to he
worked out in relation to insights from representational theories and research, and clinical attachment
theory requires the development of an experiential language akin to that used by other psychoanalytic
theories of interpersonal relatedness, such s Winnicott (1965) and Sullivan (1953).
Most important, in my view, is that the development of internal working models of self and other
within-attachment relationsshould be studied in conjunction with new approaches to the
“dialogic” or “narrative” self, integrating the mental health perspective of attachment theory with
the perspective of theorists interested in the social construction of reality (Hermans, Kempen, &
van Loon, 1992).
These theoretical developments must go hand in hand or be followed by new methodological
developments. Without Mary Ainsworth’s work on patterns of attachment in the Strange
Situation and Mary Main’s Adult Attachment Interview that built on them, Bowlby’s theoretical
contributions to developmental and clinical psychology would not have had their current
influence. I predict that, in the future, attachment theory may provide the underpinnings of a more
general theory of personality organization and relationship development. Such a theory would
build on, hut also go beyond, Bowlby’s reworking of Freud’s ideas on motivation, emotion, and
development.
In formulating the basic tenets of attachment theory, Bowlby’s strategy was, wherever
possible, to meticulously test intuitive hunches against available empirical findings and concepts
from related domains, thus keeping the theory open to change. In his last work, a biography of
Charles Darwin, Bowlby may have been talking about himself when he said of Darwin:
Since causes are never manifest, the only way of proceeding is to propose a plausible theory
and then test its explanatory powers against further evidence, and in comparison with the
power of rival theories..,. Since most theories prove to be untenable, advancing them is a
hazardous business and requires courage, a courage Darwin never lacked. (Bowlby, 1991,
p. 412)
Bowlby and Ainsworth, too, did not lack that courage. To explore the full future potential of
attachment theory, others will need to exercise similar courage in refining, extending, and
challenging it.
REFERENCES
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1963). The development of infant-mother interaction among the Ganda. In
B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (pp. 67-104). New York: Wiley.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967), Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love, Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press,
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1968), Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review
of the infant mother relationship. Child Development, 40, 969-1025.
Ainsworth, M. 1). S. (1974). Citation for the G. Stanley Hall Award to John Bowlby.
Unpublished manuscript.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and prospect. In C. M. Parkes & J.
Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behavior (pp. 3-30). New York:
Basic Books.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1983). A sketch of a career. In A. N. O’Connoll & N. F. Russo (Eds.),
Models of achievement: Reflections of eminent women in psychology (pp. 200-219). New
York: Columbia University Press,
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1969). Some contemporary patterns in the feeding situation.
In A. Ambrose (Ed,), Stimulation in early infancy (pp. 133-170). London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated
by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49-67.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., Blehar, M. C., & Main, M. (1971, April). Physical contact: A
study of infant responsiveness and its relation to maternal handling. Paper presented at the
biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. (1971). Individual differences in Strange
Situation behavior of one-year-olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed,), The origins of human social
relations (pp. 17-57). London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social
development. In M. P. Richards (Ed.), The introduction of the child into a social world (pp.
99-135). London: Cambridge University Press.
Ainsworth, M. 1). S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, 5. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A
psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bowlby, J. (1991), An ethological approach to personality development.
American Psychologist, 46, 331-341.
Ainsworth, M. I). S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and the exploratory behaviour of
one-year-olds in a strange situation. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behaviour
(Vol. 4, pp. 113-136), London: Methuen.
Ambrose, J. A. (1961), The development of the smiling response in early human infancy: An
experimental and theoretical study of their course and significance. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of London.
Arsenian, J. M. (1943). Young children in an insecure situation. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 38, 225-229.
Bateson, G., & Mead, M. (1942). Balinese character: A photographic analysis. New York:
New York Academy of Sciences.
Bell, S. M. (1970). The development of the concept of the object as related to infant-mother
attachment. Child Development, 41, 291-311.
Bell, S. M,, & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child
Development, 43, 1171-1190.
Belsky, J., & Braungart, 3, M. (1991). Are insecure-avoidant infants with extensive day-care
experience less stressed by and more independent in the Strange Situation? Child Development,
62, 567- 571.
Belsky, J., Gllstrap, B., & Rovine, M. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family Development
Project, I: Stability and change in mother-infant and father- infant interaction in a family setting
at one, three, and nine months. Child Development, 55, 692-705.
Belsky, J, & Isabella, R. (1988). Maternal, infant, and social-contextual determinants of attachment
security. In J. Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment (pp.
41-94). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., & Nezworski (1988). Clinical implications of attachment, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1987). Temperament and attachment security in the Strange Situation:
An empirical rapprochement. Child Development, 58, 787-795,
Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. J. (1988). Nonmaternal care in the first year of life and the security of
infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 59, 157-167.
Belsky, J., Rovine, M., & Fish, M. (in press). The developing family system. In M. Gunnar (Ed.),
Systems and development: Minnesota symposia on child development (Vol. 22). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., Rovine, M., & Taylor, I). (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant arid Family Development
Project, II: Origins of individual differences in infant-mother attachment: Maternal and infant
contributions, Child Development, 55, 706-717.
Blatz, W. (1940), Hostages to peace: Parents and the children of democracy. New York: Morrow.
Blehar, M. C. (1974). Anxious attachment and defensive reactions associated with day care.
Child Development, 45, 683-692.
Blehar, M. C., Lieberman, A. F., & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1977). Early face-to-face interaction
and its relation to later infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 48, l82-194.
Bowlby, 3. (1940). The influence of early environment in the development of neurosis and neurotic
character. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, XXI, 1-25.
Bowlby, J. (1944). Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home lives. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis, XXV, 19-52.
Bowlby, J, (1949). The study and reduction of group tensions in the family. Human Relations, 2,
123-128.
Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. World Health Organization Monograph
(Serial No. 2).
Bowlby, J. (1958), The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis, XXXIX, 1-23.
Bowlby, J. (1959). Separation anxiety. International Journal of Psycho-Analysts, XLI, 1-25.
Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood. The Psychoanalytic Study
of the Child, VX, 3-39.
Bowlby, J, (I 962a). Defences that follow loss: Causation and function. Unpublished
manuscript, Tavistock Child Development Research Unit, London.
Bowlby, J. (1962b). Loss, detachment and defence. Unpublished manuscript, Tavistock Child
Development Research Unit, London.
Bowlby, J. (1969), Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, Vol. 2: Separation. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (I980a). Attachment and loss, Vol. 3: Loss, sadness and depression. New York:
Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (I980b). By ethology out of psycho-analysis: An experiment in interbreeding. Animal
Behavior, 28, 649-656.
Bowlby, J, (1987). Colloquium presented at the University of Virginia.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development.
New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1991). Charles Darwin: A new biography. London: Hutchinson.
Bowlby, J,, Ainsworth, M., Boston, M., & Rosenbluth, D. (1956), The effects of mother-child
separation: A follow-up study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 29, 2 11-247.
Bowlby, J., & Parkes, C. M. (1970). Separation and loss within the family. In E. J. Anthony & C.
Koupernik (Eds.), The child in his family: International Yearbook of Child Psychiatry and
Allied Professions (pp. 197-216), New York: Wiley.
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. In I. Bretherton & F. Waters
(Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research: Monographs of the Society for
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Minnesota symposia on child development (Vol. 23, pp. 1 -41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Lewis & L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The origins of fear (pp. 134- 164), New York: Wiley.
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parental perspective. Infant Mental Health Journal (Special Issue), 10, 203-220.
Bretherton, I., Ridgeway, D., & Cassidy, J. (1990). Assessing internal working models in the
attachment relationship: An attachment story completion task for 3-ycar-olds. In M. T.
Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment during the preschool years
(pp. 272- 308). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
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Family Therapy, 7, 301-305.
Cain, A. C., & Fast, I. (1972). Children’s disturbed reactions to parent suicide. In A. C. Cain
(Ed,), Survivors of suicide (pp. 93- 111). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
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121-134.
Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of
gender. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cicchetti, D., & Barnett, D. (1991). Attachment organization in maltreated preschoolers.
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Cicirelli, V. G. (1989). Feelings of attachment to siblings and well-being in later life. Psychology
and Aging, 4, 211-216.
Cicirelli, V. G. (1991). Attachment theory in old age: Protection of the attached figure. In K.
Pillemer & K. McCartney (Eds.), Parent-child relations across the life course (pp. 25-42).
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Craik, K. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Crittenden, P. M. (1983). The effect of mandatory protective daycare on mutual attachment in
maltreating mother-infant dyads. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 297-300.
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with mother and caregiver. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 403-416.
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Press.
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to actual experiences of separation. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of California,
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regulation, and perceptions of self and others. Child Development, 59, 135-146.
Kotelchuck, M. (1972). The nature of the child’s tie to his father. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Harvard University.
In the preceding section, I have outlined the many new directions into which attachment
research is branching out. It is difficult to predict which of these efforts will he most fruitful. No
doubt, additions, revisions, and challenges to the theory will continue to arise our of future empirical
studies. In this final section, however, I would like to focus briefly on some of the theoretical
tasks that lie ahead. The idea that human motivation derives from an interplay of familiarity-
and novelty-seeking systems needs further exploration, as does the notion that the human personality
can be conceptualized as a hierarchy of interlinked systems. New theoretical treatments
of defensive processes in the construction of internal working models of attachment need to he
worked out in relation to insights from representational theories and research, and clinical attachment
theory requires the development of an experiential language akin to that used by other psychoanalytic
theories of interpersonal relatedness, such s Winnicott (1965) and Sullivan (1953).
Most important, in my view, is that the development of internal working models of self and other
within-attachment relationsshould be studied in conjunction with new approaches to the
“dialogic” or “narrative” self, integrating the mental health perspective of attachment theory with
the perspective of theorists interested in the social construction of reality (Hermans, Kempen, &
van Loon, 1992).
These theoretical developments must go hand in hand or be followed by new methodological
developments. Without Mary Ainsworth’s work on patterns of attachment in the Strange
Situation and Mary Main’s Adult Attachment Interview that built on them, Bowlby’s theoretical
contributions to developmental and clinical psychology would not have had their current
influence. I predict that, in the future, attachment theory may provide the underpinnings of a more
general theory of personality organization and relationship development. Such a theory would
build on, hut also go beyond, Bowlby’s reworking of Freud’s ideas on motivation, emotion, and
development.
In formulating the basic tenets of attachment theory, Bowlby’s strategy was, wherever
possible, to meticulously test intuitive hunches against available empirical findings and concepts
from related domains, thus keeping the theory open to change. In his last work, a biography of
Charles Darwin, Bowlby may have been talking about himself when he said of Darwin:
Since causes are never manifest, the only way of proceeding is to propose a plausible theory
and then test its explanatory powers against further evidence, and in comparison with the
power of rival theories..,. Since most theories prove to be untenable, advancing them is a
hazardous business and requires courage, a courage Darwin never lacked. (Bowlby, 1991,
p. 412)
Bowlby and Ainsworth, too, did not lack that courage. To explore the full future potential of
attachment theory, others will need to exercise similar courage in refining, extending, and
challenging it.
REFERENCES
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1963). The development of infant-mother interaction among the Ganda. In
B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (pp. 67-104). New York: Wiley.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967), Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love, Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press,
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1968), Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review
of the infant mother relationship. Child Development, 40, 969-1025.
Ainsworth, M. 1). S. (1974). Citation for the G. Stanley Hall Award to John Bowlby.
Unpublished manuscript.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and prospect. In C. M. Parkes & J.
Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behavior (pp. 3-30). New York:
Basic Books.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1983). A sketch of a career. In A. N. O’Connoll & N. F. Russo (Eds.),
Models of achievement: Reflections of eminent women in psychology (pp. 200-219). New
York: Columbia University Press,
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1969). Some contemporary patterns in the feeding situation.
In A. Ambrose (Ed,), Stimulation in early infancy (pp. 133-170). London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated
by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49-67.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., Blehar, M. C., & Main, M. (1971, April). Physical contact: A
study of infant responsiveness and its relation to maternal handling. Paper presented at the
biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. (1971). Individual differences in Strange
Situation behavior of one-year-olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed,), The origins of human social
relations (pp. 17-57). London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social
development. In M. P. Richards (Ed.), The introduction of the child into a social world (pp.
99-135). London: Cambridge University Press.
Ainsworth, M. 1). S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, 5. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A
psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bowlby, J. (1991), An ethological approach to personality development.
American Psychologist, 46, 331-341.
Ainsworth, M. I). S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and the exploratory behaviour of
one-year-olds in a strange situation. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behaviour
(Vol. 4, pp. 113-136), London: Methuen.
Ambrose, J. A. (1961), The development of the smiling response in early human infancy: An
experimental and theoretical study of their course and significance. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of London.
Arsenian, J. M. (1943). Young children in an insecure situation. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 38, 225-229.
Bateson, G., & Mead, M. (1942). Balinese character: A photographic analysis. New York:
New York Academy of Sciences.
Bell, S. M. (1970). The development of the concept of the object as related to infant-mother
attachment. Child Development, 41, 291-311.
Bell, S. M,, & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child
Development, 43, 1171-1190.
Belsky, J., & Braungart, 3, M. (1991). Are insecure-avoidant infants with extensive day-care
experience less stressed by and more independent in the Strange Situation? Child Development,
62, 567- 571.
Belsky, J., Gllstrap, B., & Rovine, M. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family Development
Project, I: Stability and change in mother-infant and father- infant interaction in a family setting
at one, three, and nine months. Child Development, 55, 692-705.
Belsky, J, & Isabella, R. (1988). Maternal, infant, and social-contextual determinants of attachment
security. In J. Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment (pp.
41-94). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., & Nezworski (1988). Clinical implications of attachment, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1987). Temperament and attachment security in the Strange Situation:
An empirical rapprochement. Child Development, 58, 787-795,
Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. J. (1988). Nonmaternal care in the first year of life and the security of
infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 59, 157-167.
Belsky, J., Rovine, M., & Fish, M. (in press). The developing family system. In M. Gunnar (Ed.),
Systems and development: Minnesota symposia on child development (Vol. 22). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Belsky, J., Rovine, M., & Taylor, I). (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant arid Family Development
Project, II: Origins of individual differences in infant-mother attachment: Maternal and infant
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