THE ORIGINS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY: JOHN BOWLBY AND MARY AINSWORTH
作者: INGE BRETHERTON / 35919次阅读 时间: 2011年4月24日
来源: Developmental Psychology (1992), 28, 759-775.
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ATTACHMENT THEORY AND MENTAL REPRESENTATION 心理学空间b"JH7B;t'I-bV}
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Separation (Bowlby, 1973) and Loss (Bowlby, 1980a), the second and third volumes in 心理学空间'I:l!v)q2Z/w
Bowlby’s attachment trilogy, were slower to make an impact on the field of developmental
4R1|q&GL0psychology than the first volume, in part because relevant empirical studies lagged behind. Like 心理学空间:rU8V(gP |,CG/F$?
Attachment, these two volumes cover much more theoretical ground that their titles imply.
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X M`#OUa0Separation 心理学空间I8q|z&_$G

C8C7y/mtp0In this book, Bowlby (1973) revises Freud’s (1926/1959) theory of signal anxiety, lays out 心理学空间Q8nif dYl/H
a new approach to Freud’s (1923/1961, 1940/1964) motivational theories, and presents an
2R%A(f$V!dz0epigenetic model of personality development inspired by Waddington’s (1957) theory of developmental
K)u*l-N9X5N p0pathways.
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Elaborating on his seminal 1959 paper, Bowlby notes that two distinct sets of stimuli elicit 心理学空间?&_&_+o&ngU!{@
fear in children: the presence of unlearned and later of culturally acquired clues to danger and/or
M _4R/J7hMn9vt$eg0the absence of an attachment figure. Although escape from danger and escape to an attachment
"`-sMm RW]K0figure commonly occur together, the two classes of behavior are governed by separate control 心理学空间*D.X6m6`$Z'Y/N
systems (observable when a ferocious dog comes between a mother and her young child.
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Although Bowlby regarded the systems controlling escape and attachment as conceptually 心理学空间+j*YuLd1V
distinct, he considers both as members of a larger family of stress-reducing and safety-promoting
F,?2H Q8~cYmd_7CU9W0behavioral systems, whose more general function is that of maintaining an organism within a
6v/\/Q8d-A0defined relationship to his or her environment. Rather than striving for stimulus absence, as Freud 心理学空间z#]H(mf,J4J K)M
had suggested, Bowlby posits that humans are motivated to maintain a dynamic balance between 心理学空间Z-b@5g-\!n"]r

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],@1q]S+q?z%a0familiarity-preserving, stress-reducing behaviors (attachment to protective individuals and to
g@1c?-P W"m]*R;~ND0familiar home sites, retreat from the strange and novel) and antithetical exploratory and 心理学空间Z {B`!S:x
information-seeking behaviors. 心理学空间j~!VfjCCk"w

_H-n#P:R"g0After revising Freud’s theories of fear and motivation, Bowlby reexamined Freud’s concept 心理学空间:J*W'w^G m|0Q~
of the “inner world” in light of modern cognitive theory. In Separation, he expands ideas 心理学空间;Ym A#@u c Q
proposed in Attachment by suggesting that, within an individual’s internal working model of the
,o_7p:`l{H0world, working models of self and attachment figure are especially salient. These working 心理学空间*e%F'ex?WN5H
models, acquired through interpersonal interaction patterns, are complementary. If the attachment
a qjD9nt Q*I0figure has acknowledged the infant’s needs fur comfort and protection while simultaneously
[ q IL B7c0respecting the infant’s need for independent exploration of the environment, the child is likely to 心理学空间h7c"L1Dn/D8X.G
develop an internal working model of self as valued and reliable. Conversely, if the parent has 心理学空间_I6s#P3p:h
frequently rejected the infant’s bids for comfort or for exploration, the child is likely to construct 心理学空间h^IrR3j&U
an internal working model of self as unworthy or incompetent. With the aid of working models, 心理学空间 eb3|:`'s}@ z
children predict the attachment figure’s likely behavior and plan their own responses. What type
iR#`v1J }Z0of model they construct is therefore of great consequence. 心理学空间e_~?Z |e@o'Q

_qwf^A;}5NU0P6t0In Separation, Bowlby also elucidates the role of internal working models in the intergenerational
z!F*bd1BQ0y0transmission of attachment patterns. Individuals who grow up to become relatively stable
2fL'y&_+D$x0and self-reliant, he postulates, normally have parents who are supportive when called upon, hut 心理学空间H^M"Tl"m
who also permit and encourage autonomy. Such parents tend not only to engage in fairly frank
Ktf8tkZ^sk0communication of their own working models of self, of their child, and of others, hut also indicate
:[-V6I"fj4G0to the child that these working models are open to questioning and revision. For this reason, says
|eTjI1f'Cw&DL+N.\0Bowlby, the inheritance of mental health and of ill health through family micro-culture is no less 心理学空间go&m m#f8V
important, and may well he far more important, than is genetic inheritance (Bowlby, 973, p. 323).
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Loss
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In the third volume of the attachment trilogy, Bowlby (1980a) uses information-processing
fu9^2Z e0theories to explain the increasing stability of internal working models as well as their defensive 心理学空间1}:R/n+S!FSfdh9@^
distortion. The stability of internal working models derives from two sources: (a) patterns of 心理学空间x$|(Z1]"n'S&v
interacting grow less accessible to awareness as they become habitual and automatic, and (b) 心理学空间A'u6~2Qk#r
dyadic patterns of relating are more resistant to change than individual patterns because of
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reciprocal expectancies. 心理学空间fjq'y/o#t3Uy

M P4`(T,Ec0Given that old patterns of action and thought guide selective attention and information 心理学空间9\ L)\H;x-?&?7fR,sS
processing in new situations, some distortion of incoming information is normal and unavoidable. 心理学空间wn _,Ch8X)S
The adequacy of internal working models can be seriously undermined, however, when defensive 心理学空间kuh4i?:An D
exclusion of information from awareness interferes with their updating in response to developmental
tANB3`b{o4Jy0and environmental change.
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8bP8OFJ]*Q&iQ0To explain the workings of defensive processes, Bowlby cites evidence showing that 心理学空间4L O z"\(qp
incoming information normally undergoes many stages of processing before reaching awareness
!Q{S,J g0(see Dixon, 1971; Erdelyi, 1974) At every stage, some information is retained for further
8?ZH;q r,l/`E~0processing and the remainder discarded. That this may happen even after information has already 心理学空间B:|V:K1K(d
undergone very advanced levels of encoding is shown by dichotic listening studies, In these
V:O+`0~I0studies, individuals who are presented with different messages to each ear through headphones 心理学空间r(Kx-u uA9W4GH
are able to selectively attend to one of them. That the unattended message is nevertheless 心理学空间;W uG5bq+eli z*kA
receiving high level processing becomes obvious when the person becomes alerted to a word of 心理学空间Of3D!MO!OW
personal significance (e.g., the person’s name) that has been inserted into the unattended
0G7kZ(i/~,X.^:mB0message.
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E8K6a'B]S:s*? w0Bowlby proposes that defensive exclusion of information from awareness derives from the
arE]QH.i0same processes as selective exclusion, although the motivation for the two types of exclusion
.O6qA)Ng _0differs. Three situations are believed to render children particularly prone to engaging in defensive
Y!F$b3ln%Cw.pE!C#g0|0exclusion: situations that parents do not wish their children to know about even though the 心理学空间Ap]7o9N"f#F~
children have witnessed them, situations in which the children find the parents’ behavior too
aoAnnd)P)m0unbearable to think about, and situations in which children have done or thought about doing
-Sv;h|"f.T^ a0something of which they are deeply ashamed. 心理学空间y z8t(P?bf%e:Z
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Although defensive exclusion protects the individual from experiencing unbearable mental
\!t0jU0B0pain, confusion, or conflict, it is hound to interfere with the accommodation of internal working 心理学空间? A&vx(k.a
models to external reality. Indeed, a number of clinical studies reviewed in Separation (e.g., Cain 心理学空间,G1|3T9`@Z
& Fast, 1972) suggest that defensive exclusion leads to a split in internal working models. One set 心理学空间X^y w1@
of working models- accessible to awareness and discussion and based on what a child has been 心理学空间9LL3sf,k9@9`
told-represents the parent as good and the parent’s rejecting behavior as caused by the “badness”
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of the child, The other model, based on what the child has experienced but defensively excluded
[~6\3L.O:@kl;[0from awareness, represents the hated or disappointing side of the parent.
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V:h+P8@r0In Loss, Bowlby attempts to shed further light on these repressive and dissociative
[T7ou Z sGB"fu \0phenomena with the aid of Tulving’s (1972) distinction between episodic and semantic memory. 心理学空间7_ O+c6Rb'c`
According to Tulving, autobiographical experience is encoded in episodic memory, whereas 心理学空间4lxbSh
generic propositions are stored in semantic memory, with each memory system possibly using
7l`9A C0]wiEH.nk0distinct storage mechanisms. Generic knowledge may derive from information supplied by others
fR}0Xjg#D1n"zu0and from actual experience. Bowlby surmises that severe psychic conflict is likely to arise when 心理学空间%~i\r+h]Oz
the two sources of stored information (generalizations built on actual experience and on
R"L6D"^ C}4[0communications from others) are highly contradictory. In such cases, defensive exclusion may be
W@ [5PX*{ r0brought to bear on episodic memories of actual experience. According to Bowlby, such processes
s(W;x&As ~p1~t0are especially likely in bereaved children under 3 years of age.
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#O \ E+H5f t#o?0Finally, in Loss, Bowlby also considers a more complex related prob1cm, namely, the
*U-z2AW`B0control of simultaneously active behavioral systems. In Attachment and Separation, the interplay
-}9ja;V V[ iO2h/t5N0among behavioral systems was implicitly treated as one of competition, not higher level regulation
CO(DZ2A~Umw9]0(see also Bretherton & Ainsworth, 1974). In Loss, Bowlby posits an executive structure that
1tdg&~9m0takes the place of Freud’s (1923/1961) concept of ego. The central nervous system, Bowlby
2MxES8p?8V!b(B~1l0suggests, is organized in a loosely hierarchical way, with an enormous network of two-way
7Q_4a#k1K1i0communications among subsystems. At the top of the hierarchy, he posits one or perhaps several 心理学空间 y3_*vW|miB'S
principal evaluators or controllers, closely linked to long-term memory. Their task is to scan 心理学空间%t+g:r My ~/r
incoming information for relevance. If evaluated as relevant, it may be stored in short-term 心理学空间X`R)lr6RPi/~8t
memory to select aspects thereof for further processing.
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&LH:MR YEoJ0Conscious processing is likely to facilitate high-level activities such as categorizing, retrieving,
4WYQEm$]"pV;w0comparing, framing plans, and inspection of overlearned, automated action systems. In a
Jz-Y _V$N m*i1P0unified personality, Bowlby claims, the principal system or systems can access all memories in 心理学空间M[6dJL3eyy x5{
whatever type of storage they are held. However, in some cases, the principal system or systems 心理学空间 Gf5L;d3P&c
may nor be unified or capable of unimpeded intercommunication with all subsystems. In this case,
5?,K _4Q%s^ L(K@:_0particular behavioral systems may not he activated when appropriate, or signals from these 心理学空间u%{ j_8Dz2U
behavioral systems may not become conscious, although fragments of defensively excluded 心理学空间;of+FK%RsZ-S

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W"bmwj;E0information may at times seep through.
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zJj(VDVS(R0Some of the dissociative or repressive phenomena involved in the deactivation of the 心理学空间7M m$r;? Wa2R\c
attachment system occur during pathological mourning. For example, complete or partial 心理学空间0rce ^K I9Q3t
disconnection of an emotional response from its cause is frequent. When the disconnection is only
5I-}M? M _d0partial, emotional responses may be directed away from the person who caused them to third
8F"Ee/_ Y[-m/l u0persons or to the self. I knee, a bereaved person may become morbidly preoccupied with personal
:oVr"a4m8q$a3n0reactions and sufferings, rather than attributing his or her feelings to the loss of a close
d&ye:J;G U)l5S y:F0relationship. Similarly, in disordered mourning, a bereaved person’s disposition toward compulsive 心理学空间^,f?bguxxk
caregiving may derive from the redirection of attachment behavior. The individual may he
e]%f3th`%]3UD0taking the role of attachment figure instead of seeking care. 心理学空间+yO-a%y:r

+p7B7tU%pzSr*x h8F0Attachment and Therapy
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This discussion of defensive processes leads into the topic that preoccupied Bowlby during 心理学空间r| F(x+Ve?m,iv4`N
the last 10 years of his life: the uses of attachment theory in psychotherapy (Bowlby, 1988),
$Qq|:Fmt F0Under attachment theory, a major goal in psychotherapy is the reappraisal of inadequate, 心理学空间;QR#k8Z.M9@7^ I#K
outdated working models of self in relation to attachment figures, a particularly difficult task if 心理学空间W/EkS%sc0^;D ak$o
important others, especially parents, have forbidden their review. As psychoanalysts have
o5?%\jGE0repeatedly noted, a person with inadequate, rigid working models of attachment relations is likely 心理学空间7j6N-q*S\zz
to inappropriately impose these models on interactions with the therapist (a phenomenon known 心理学空间.]N.d"V}&}&]p-m
as transference). The joint task 0f therapist and client is to understand the origins of the client’s 心理学空间 iWD]7DO
dysfunctional internal working models of self and attachment figures, Toward this end, the 心理学空间]]tYr wm M
therapist can be most helpful by serving as a reliable, secure base from which an individual can
3B bI4S.og0begin the arduous task of exploring and reworking his or her internal working models.
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